Application data allows associating custom data with TCM items and storing it in Content Manager database. It is used by both custom extensions and by several Tridion components. Specifically, Experience Manager, External Content Library, Translation...
In vanilla ASP.NET MVC, the RenderAction helper gives you a tool for passing route parameters to a child action in the form of the routeValues parameter. In DD4T, however, the RenderAction call is abstracted away behind the IComponentPresentationRenderer...